observation naturelle psychologie
13, no 2, 2010, p.159 à 176 Avantages et limites des approches méthodologiques utilisées pour étudier les pratiques enseignantes Marie Dupin de Saint-André, Isabelle Montésinos (Her real name was Bertha Pappenheim, and she was an early feminist who went on to make important contributions to the field of social work.) 1963). The description provides no way of knowing whether Anna had really repressed the memory of the dog drinking from the glass, whether this repression had caused her inability to drink, or whether recalling this “trauma” relieved the symptom. For instance, interviews, naturalistic observation, structured observation, psychological testing (e.g., IQ test), and/or physiological measurements (e.g., brain scans) may be used to collect information on the individual. He lost the ability to transfer information from his short-term memory to his long term memory, something memory researchers call consolidation. Observation effectue la connaissance par contact direct, sur la base des sens des indications, il est le premier dans l'histoire de … Alternatively, the researcher may observe people in a natural setting (like a classroom setting) that they have structured some way, for instance by introducing some specific task participants are to engage in or by introducing a specific social situation or manipulation. As evidence for the theory, however, it is essentially worthless. (Her real name was Bertha Pappenheim, and she was an early feminist who went on to make important contributions to the field of social work.) Il n’est pas toujours possible d’expérimenter afin d’étudier le comportement, on utilise alors les méthodes non expérimentales, comme l’observation naturelle, les corrélations, les enquêtes et les études de cas individuels (ßcas cliniques). In, , researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying. L’observation • 4. L'observation naturaliste est une méthode de recherche couramment utilisée par les psychologues et autres spécialistes des sciences sociales. Peterson, C., Seligman, M. E. P., & Vaillant, G. E. (1988). disguised participant observation is less prone to reactivity than undisguised participant observation. In one study, they examined Social Security records to show that women with the names Virginia, Georgia, Louise, and Florence were especially likely to have moved to the states of Virginia, Georgia, Louisiana, and Florida, respectively. Aujourd’hui elle n’est For example, counting the number of people named Virginia who live in various states based on Social Security records is relatively straightforward. In the case of undisguised naturalistic observation, it is a type of reactivity when people know they are being observed and studied, they may act differently than they normally would. Observation en psychologie est toujours fait avec un but, par préarrangements, il est équipé d'une variété d'objets nécessaires pour corriger les résultats et la mise en œuvre du processus. Such an approach is called, In cases where it is not ethical or practical to conduct disguised naturalistic observation, researchers can conduct, Another approach to data collection in observational research is participant observation. The researchers then assessed the statistical relationship between the men’s explanatory style as undergraduate students and archival measures of their health at approximately 60 years of age. Kraut and Johnston, for example, video recorded a subset of their participants’ reactions and had two observers independently code them. Precise specification of the sampling process in this way makes data collection manageable for the observers, and it also provides some control over important extraneous variables. Par exemple, on peut observer les habitudes et préférences d’achat de consommateurs dans un lieu de vente. L’observation clinique ne concerne pas la réalité psychique en soi, mais ses effets. The researchers then assessed the statistical relationship between the men’s explanatory style as undergraduate students and archival measures of their health at approximately 60 years of age. The target behaviors must be defined in such a way that different observers code them in the same way. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Sometimes case studies are also completed on social units (e.g., a cult) and events (e.g., a natural disaster). This allows them to quantify the behaviors they are observing. The patient had said nothing, as she had wanted to be polite. In the case of undisguised naturalistic observation, the concern with reactivity is that when people know they are being observed and studied, they may act differently than they normally would. Il n’est pas toujours possible d’expérimenter afin d’étudier le comportement, on utilise alors les méthodes non expérimentales, comme l’observation naturelle, les corrélations, les enquêtes et … A final limitation of case studies is that ample opportunity exists for the theoretical biases of the researcher to color or bias the case description. Conditioned emotional reactions. The basic rationale for participant observation is that there may be important information that is only accessible to, or can be interpreted only by, someone who is an active participant in the group or situation. Ethically, this method is considered to be acceptable if the participants remain anonymous and the behavior occurs in a public setting where people would not normally have an expectation of privacy. However, one concern with undisguised naturalistic observation is reactivity. In other words, case studies can be used as inspiration to formulate theories and hypotheses, but those hypotheses and theories then need to be formally tested using more rigorous quantitative methods. Interested in studying how members of the group would cope psychologically when the prophecy inevitably failed, they carefully recorded the events and reactions of the cult members in the days before and after the supposed end of the world. En psychoéducation, l’objet des recherches est l’humain et son comportement. The researchers then assessed the statistical relationship between the men’s explanatory style as undergraduate students and archival measures of their health at approximately 60 years of age. While this is also a concern with naturalistic observation when researchers because active members of the social group they are studying, additional concerns arise that they may change the social dynamics and/or influence the behavior of the people they are studying. During the actual study, the observers spoke into an audio recorder, describing the reactions they observed. Aperçu du texte. Festinger, L., Riecken, H., & Schachter, S. (1956). To control for the effects of socializing, only pedestrians walking alone were used. Therefore, rather than recording everything that happens, the researcher only focuses on very specific behaviors of interest. Often the individual has a rare or unusual condition or disorder or has damage to a specific region of the brain. Understanding Psychological Measurement, 20. As another example, researchers Robert Kraut and Robert Johnston wanted to study bowlers’ reactions to their shots, both when they were facing the pins and then when they turned toward their companions (Kraut & Johnston, 1979)[5]. Wilkins spent 12 months attending and participating in the group’s meetings and social events, and she interviewed several group members. More pessimistic people tend to blame themselves and expect long-term negative consequences that affect many aspects of their lives, while more optimistic people tend to blame outside forces and expect limited negative consequences. An example is a study by Brett Pelham and his colleagues on “implicit egotism”—the tendency for people to prefer people, places, and things that are similar to themselves (Pelham, Carvallo, & Jones, 2005)[7]. Thirty-five men and 35 women were timed in most cities.” (p. 186). He is currently completing a Professional Doctorate in Education and is passionate about the impact of technology on teaching and learning. This method is an example of content analysis—a family of systematic approaches to measurement using complex archival data. Researchers engaged in naturalistic observation usually make their observations as unobtrusively as possible so that participants are not aware that they are being studied. Although at first glance a case study of a rare individual might seem to tell us little about ourselves, they often do provide insights into normal behavior. There are a number of learning theories, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, that emphasize how direct experience, reinforcement, or punishment lead to learning.. On the other hand, one of the arguments against the ethicality of the naturalistic observation of “bathroom behavior” discussed earlier in the book is that people have a reasonable expectation of privacy even in a public restroom and that this expectation was violated. Implicit egotism. Levine and Norenzayan described their sampling process as follows: Precise specification of the sampling process in this way makes data collection manageable for the observers, and it also provides some control over important extraneous variables. Observation et expérimentation », , Introduction à la psychologie. According to Freud, She would take up the glass of water that she longed for, but as soon as it touched her lips she would push it away like someone suffering from hydrophobia.…She lived only on fruit, such as melons, etc., so as to lessen her tormenting thirst. The treatment was a success, in that it resolved his epilepsy and his IQ and personality were unaffected. As a result of the case study, the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of what might become important to look at more extensively in future more controlled research. Case study methods involve an in-depth, and often a longitudinal examination of an individual. Another example of participant observation comes from a study by sociologist Amy Wilkins (published in, ) on a university-based religious organization that emphasized how happy its members were (Wilkins, 2008). Joseph is a Subject Advisor for Psychology at tutor2u. Researchers Robert Levine and Ara Norenzayan used structured observation to study differences in the “pace of life” across countries (Levine & Norenzayan, 1999)[3]. naturelle de l’homme – une psychologie descriptive, et non à proprement parler une psychologie expérimentale. Observation is also one of the most important research methods in social sciences and at the same time one of the most complex. Similarly, if the researcher acts as a participant observer there can be concerns with biases resulting from developing relationships with the participants. In participant observation, researchers become active participants in the group or situation they are studying. Like naturalistic observation, participant observation can be either disguised or undisguised. The only difference between naturalistic observation and participant observation is that researchers engaged in participant observation become active members of the group or situations they are studying. These were given to a separate group of raters who rated each explanation in terms of three separate dimensions of optimism-pessimism. ... Mais l'observation n'est pas naturelle, elle suppose un effort de la part du chercheur, elle constitue une opération bien plus complexe qu'il n'y parait. However, the doctors soon realized that HM exhibited a strange form of amnesia, called anterograde amnesia. For this reason, most researchers would consider it ethically acceptable to observe them for a study. For instance, you may act much differently in a bar if you know that someone is observing you and recording your behaviors and this would invalidate the study. The observers then categorize participants individually in terms of which behavior they have engaged in and the number of times they engaged in each behavior. Cela a donné lieu, dès le xix e siècle, à des chroniques appelées « biographies de bébés » : les chercheurs de l’époque notaient au jour le jour les comportements de leur enfant dans les premiers mois ou les premières années. However, naturalistic observation could more simply involve observing shoppers in a grocery store, children on a school playground, or psychiatric inpatients in their wards. The term is used to refer to several different types of non-experimental studies in which behavior is systematically observed and recorded. Le principe majeur est la singularité. Pour y p… Quand l'observation directe est-elle utilisée? Jane Goodall’s famous research on chimpanzees is a classic example of naturalistic observation. Pessimistic explanatory style is a risk factor for physical illness: A thirty-five year longitudinal study. Such an approach is called, In cases where it is not ethical or practical to conduct disguised naturalistic observation, researchers can conduct, Another approach to data collection in observational research is participant observation. Peterson, C., Seligman, M. E. P., & Vaillant, G. E. (1988). Jane Goodall’s famous research on chimpanzees is a classic example of naturalistic observation. La caméra est objective, mais finalement ce n'est pas l'observation à la caméra qui est publiée, mais son interprétation However, the doctors soon realized that HM exhibited a strange form of amnesia, called anterograde amnesia. In other words, over time people habituate to being observed. Another example of participant observation comes from a study by sociologist Amy Wilkins, on a university-based religious organization that emphasized how happy its members were (Wilkins, 2008). However, when researchers exert more control over the environment it may make the environment less natural which decreases external validity. La réalité psychique n’est en effet pas observable en soi. Ce type de recherche est souvent utilisé dans des situations où la réalisation de recherches en laboratoire est irréaliste, d'un coût prohibitif ou pourrait affecter indûment le … Another approach to data collection in observational research is participant observation. Based on previous research and their own pilot testing, Kraut and Johnston created a list of reactions that included “closed smile,” “open smile,” “laugh,” “neutral face,” “look down,” “look away,” and “face cover” (covering one’s face with one’s hands). “Happier than Non-Christians”: Collective emotions and symbolic boundaries among evangelical Christians. The pace of life in 31 countries. When the observations require a judgment on the part of the observers—as in the studies by Kraut and Johnston and Cohen and his colleagues—a process referred to as. The researchers then assessed the statistical relationship between the men’s explanatory style as undergraduate students and archival measures of their health at approximately 60 years of age. But consider a study by Christopher Peterson and his colleagues on the relationship between optimism and health using data that had been collected many years before for a study on adult development (Peterson, Seligman, & Vaillant, 1988), In the 1940s, healthy male college students had completed an open-ended questionnaire about difficult wartime experiences. HM suffered from intractable and very severe epilepsy. This was an extremely important case study for memory researchers because it suggested that there’s a dissociation between short-term memory and long-term memory, it suggested that these were two different abilities sub-served by different areas of the brain. In other words, over time people habituate to being observed. Festinger and his colleagues later published a book about this experience, which they used to illustrate the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, Riecken, & Schachter, 1956). The primary limitation with this approach is that the mere presence of the observer could affect the behavior of the people being observed. In one study, they examined Social Security records to show that women with the names Virginia, Georgia, Louise, and Florence were especially likely to have moved to the states of Virginia, Georgia, Louisiana, and Florida, respectively. Recall that with most research designs there is a trade-off between internal and external validity. Jane Goodall’s famous research on chimpanzees is a classic example of naturalistic observation. More generally, the goal is to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics of an individual, group, or setting. Grocery shoppers putting items into their shopping carts, for example, are engaged in public behavior that is easily observable by store employees and other shoppers. But consider a study by Christopher Peterson and his colleagues on the relationship between optimism and health using data that had been collected many years before for a study on adult development (Peterson, Seligman, & Vaillant, 1988), In the 1940s, healthy male college students had completed an open-ended questionnaire about difficult wartime experiences. These ratings were then averaged to produce an explanatory style score for each participant. Most commonly in psychology, however, case studies provide a detailed description and analysis of an individual. (p.9). But what “reactions” should they observe? As with naturalistic observation, measurement can be more or less straightforward when working with archival data. Anna had come to Freud’s colleague Josef Breuer around 1880 with a variety of odd physical and psychological symptoms. Often the setting in which the observations are made is not the natural setting. In one study, they examined Social Security records to show that women with the names Virginia, Georgia, Louise, and Florence were especially likely to have moved to the states of Virginia, Georgia, Louisiana, and Florida, respectively. Les sciences sociales sont un bon exemple d’adaptation de la démarche au niveau empirique. Another approach that is often considered observational research is the use of archival research which involves analyzing data that have already been collected for some other purpose. L’observation. In. Observational methods in psychological research entail the observation and description of a subject's behavior. Aujourd’hui elle n’est plus pratiquée. Wilkins, A. In disguised participant observation, the researchers pretend to be members of the social group they are observing and conceal their true identity as researchers. Pessimistic explanatory style is a risk factor for physical illness: A thirty-five year longitudinal study. When the observations require a judgment on the part of the observers—as in the studies by Kraut and Johnston and Cohen and his colleagues—a process referred to as coding is typically required. Based on previous research and their own pilot testing, Kraut and Johnston created a list of reactions that included “closed smile,” “open smile,” “laugh,” “neutral face,” “look down,” “look away,” and “face cover” (covering one’s face with one’s hands). Also, often times the environment is structured to encourage the behaviors of interest which again means that researchers do not have to invest as much time in waiting for the behaviors of interest to naturally occur. Watson, J. Kohn et de P. Nègre, 1991). To control for the effects of socializing, only pedestrians walking alone were used. Researchers are expected to demonstrate the interrater reliability of their coding procedure by having multiple raters code the same behaviors independently and then showing that the different observers are in close agreement. Pearson’s r was +.25. The primary limitation with this approach is that the mere presence of the observer could affect the behavior of the people being observed. Pelham, B. W., Carvallo, M., & Jones, J. T. (2005). Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). List the various types of observational research methods and distinguish between each. So disguised observation is less reactive and therefore can have higher validity because people are not aware that their behaviors are being observed and recorded. But sometimes disguised participation is the only way to access a protective group (like a cult). - Les techniques de l’observation en psychologie : observation directe ou indirecte, ouverte ou clandestine, naturelle ou provoquée, libre ou systématique, participante ou non participante, observation … So there are limits both to the ability to determine causation and to generalize the results. Further, disguised participant observation is less prone to reactivity than undisguised participant observation. For instance, an individual’s depression score may be compared to normative scores or their score before and after treatment may be compared. La subjectivité est d'emblée de mise. Festinger and his colleagues later published a book about this experience, which they used to illustrate the theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, Riecken, & Schachter, 1956)[1]. Parfois, la situation est naturelle et c'est l'observateur qui entre dans l'environnement de l'observé. During the actual study, the observers spoke into an audio recorder, describing the reactions they observed. Another approach that is often considered observational research involves, analyzing archival data that have already been collected for some other purpose. Interestingly, the researchers hypothesized that participants from the southern United States, which is one of several places in the world that has a “culture of honor,” would react with more aggression than participants from the northern United States, a prediction that was in fact supported by the observational data (Cohen, Nisbett, Bowdle, & Schwarz, 1996)[6]. One of the primary benefits of participant observation is that the researchers are in a much better position to understand the viewpoint and experiences of the people they are studying when they are a part of the social group. Case study methods involve an in-depth, and often a longitudinal examination of an individual. En psychologie, l'observation prend deux aspects très différents, suivant que par elle on prétend constituer une science psychologique rigoureuse un simplement noter des faits utiles à la conduite de la vie ou pouvant servir de matière à des oeuvres d'art. Measurements were taken during main business hours on clear summer days. In disguised participant observation, the researchers pretend to be members of the social group they are observing and conceal their true identity as researchers. Au-delà de la sélection naturelle, il y a la sélection sexuelle, qui se réfère à des critères subjectifs, et dont l’observation est à l’origine de la psychologie moderne Allen Frances Publié dimanche 16 juin 2013 à 20:56 Aucune de ces méthodes ne peut être utilisée afin de définir la cause du comportement, mais elles peuvent être utiles pour préciser les rapports entre les variables et pour recueillir des informations permettant de prédire le comportement. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pappenheim_1882.jpg. Nous la retrouvons dans les nouvelles, dans les rues, sur les réseaux… Il semblerait qu’il s’agisse d’une tendance naturelle de l’être humaine. Watson, J. Measurements were taken during main business hours on clear summer days. They were much more likely to smile after they turned toward their companions, suggesting that smiling is not purely an expression of happiness but also a form of social communication. Coding generally requires clearly defining a set of target behaviors. One of them was that for several weeks she was unable to drink any fluids. Insult, aggression, and the southern culture of honor: An "experimental ethnography.". 227-263. It is also unclear from this case study how typical or atypical Anna’s experience was. There are several different approaches to observational research including naturalistic observation, participant observation, structured observation, case studies, and archival research. Kraut and Johnston, for example, video recorded a subset of their participants’ reactions and had two observers independently code them. La pratique d’interviews Non exclusivité des méthodes !! For example, people in Canada and Sweden covered 60 feet in just under 13 seconds on average, while people in Brazil and Romania took close to 17 seconds. Coding generally requires clearly defining a set of target behaviors. The target behaviors must be defined in such a way that guides different observers to code them in the same way. It also suggested that the temporal lobes are particularly important for consolidating new information (i.e., for transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory). Cependant, bien que l'objectif autour(Autour est le nom que la nomenclature aviaire en langue française (mise à jour) donne à 31 espèces d'oiseaux qui, soit appartiennent au genre Accipiter, soit...) duquel s'organise l'observation obli… 39L’observation clinique, lorsqu’elle vise la réalité psychique, subjective, porte sur un certain nombre d’éléments qui sont autant d’effets de la réalité psychique. Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). Structured observation is very similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation in that in all cases researchers are observing naturally occurring behavior, however, the emphasis in structured observation is on gathering quantitative rather than qualitative data. Thus naturalistic observation is a type of field research (as opposed to a type of laboratory research). Once again there are important ethical issues to consider with disguised participant observation. As another example, researchers Robert Kraut and Robert Johnston wanted to study bowlers’ reactions to their shots, both when they were facing the pins and then when they turned toward their companions (Kraut & Johnston, 1979). To obtain a measure of explanatory style for each participant, the researchers used a procedure in which all negative events mentioned in the questionnaire responses, and any causal explanations for them were identified and written on index cards. Research that is non-experimental because it focuses on recording systemic observations of behavior in a natural or laboratory setting without manipulating anything. They were much more likely to smile after they turned toward their companions, suggesting that smiling is not purely an expression of happiness but also a form of social communication. is an observational method that involves observing people’s behavior in the environment in which it typically occurs. (2008). As an illustration of Freud’s theory, the case study of Anna O. is quite effective. However, we now know that people often become used to being observed and with time they begin to behave naturally in the researcher’s presence. But what “reactions” should they observe? HM was able to carry out a conversation and he could remember short strings of letters, digits, and words. There is a fascinating New York Times article that describes some of the controversies that ensued after HM’s death and analysis of his brain that can be found at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/magazine/the-brain-that-couldnt-remember.html?_r=0. Il découle de ce qui précède : Coding generally requires clearly defining a set of target behaviors. Exposé de 16 pages en psychologie : L'observation en Psychologie. La méthode de l’observation pour vos recherches : définition, types et exemple Publié le 4 décembre 2019 par Gaspard Claude. However, HM could not commit new events to memory. There is a fascinating New York Times article that describes some of the controversies that ensued after HM’s death and analysis of his brain that can be found at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/07/magazine/the-brain-that-couldnt-remember.html?_r=0.